What Does It Mean To Be Human? – Hearths & Shelters". Smithsonian Institution. 12 August 2016 . Retrieved 12 August 2016.

USDA Table of Nutrient Retention Factors, Release 6" (PDF). USDA. USDA. December 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Zohar, Irit; Alperson-Afil, Nira; Goren-Inbar, Naama; Prévost, Marion; Tütken, Thomas; Sisma-Ventura, Guy; Hershkovitz, Israel; Najorka, Jens (December 2022). "Evidence for the cooking of fish 780,000 years ago at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 6 (12): 2016–2028. doi: 10.1038/s41559-022-01910-z. ISSN 2397-334X. PMID 36376603. S2CID 253522354. Luke, Kim. "Evidence That Human Ancestors Used Fire One Million Years Ago" . Retrieved 27 October 2013. An international team led by the University of Toronto and Hebrew University has identified the earliest known evidence of the use of fire by human ancestors. Microscopic traces of wood ash, alongside animal bones and stone tools, were found in a layer dated to one million years ago Soliah, Lu Ann Laurice; Walter, Janelle Marshall; Jones, Sheila Ann (1 March 2012). "Benefits and Barriers to Healthful Eating What Are the Consequences of Decreased Food Preparation Ability?". American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. 6 (2): 152–158. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1026.8612. doi: 10.1177/1559827611426394. ISSN 1559-8276. S2CID 71797396. Cooking foods with heat depends on many factors: the specific heat of an object, thermal conductivity, and (perhaps most significantly) the difference in temperature between the two objects. Thermal diffusivity is the combination of specific heat, conductivity and density that determines how long it will take for the food to reach a certain temperature. [46] Home-cooking and commercial cooking [ edit ] A restaurant kitchen in Munich, Germany (Haxnbauer restaurant)Jones, Michael Owen; Long, Lucy M. (2017). Comfort Food: Meaning and Memories. Univ. Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-4968-1086-1. Chemical processes central to cooking include hydrolysis (in particular beta elimination of pectins, during the thermal treatment of plant tissues), pyrolysis, and glycation reactions wrongly named Maillard reactions. [44] [45]

To prevent those injuries there are protections such as cooking clothing, anti-slip shoes, fire extinguisher and more. T]his book is very timely... and there are so many wantable dishes here... Among the dishes calling me are sausage and fennel focaccia rolls; squash baked with beer, cheese, cream and pretzels; and cherry Bakewell pudding." Diana Henry, TelegraphWhat a beauty... imaginative, appealing recipes grounded in good sense... you can taste the experience, that these are lived recipes." Rachel Roddy Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking meat at high temperature creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done. [39] While avoiding meat or eating meat raw may be the only ways to avoid HCAs in meat fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below 212°F (100°C) creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Also, microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90% by reducing the time needed for the meat to be cooked at high heat. [39] Nitrosamines are found in some food, and may be produced by some cooking processes from proteins or from nitrites used as food preservatives; cured meat such as bacon has been found to be carcinogenic, with links to colon cancer. Ascorbate, which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation. [38] [40] Bongoni, R; Verkerk, R; Steenbekkers, B; Dekker, M; Stieger (2014). "Evaluation of Different Cooking Conditions on Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) to Improve the Nutritional Value and Consumer Acceptance". Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 69 (3): 228–234. doi: 10.1007/s11130-014-0420-2. PMID 24853375. S2CID 35228794. The scientific study of cooking has become known as molecular gastronomy. This is a subdiscipline of food science concerning the physical and chemical transformations that occur during cooking. [42] Wrangham, R. and Conklin-Brittain, N., 2003. Cooking as a biological trait. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, 136(1), pp. 35–46

In a human epidemiological analysis by Richard Doll and Richard Peto in 1981, diet was estimated to cause a large percentage of cancers. [36] Studies suggest that around 32% of cancer deaths may be avoidable by changes to the diet. [37] Some of these cancers may be caused by carcinogens in food generated during the cooking process, although it is often difficult to identify the specific components in diet that serve to increase cancer risk. [38] Barbas, Samantha (Fall 2002). "Just Like Home: "Home Cooking" and the Domestication of the American Restaurant". Gastronomica. 2 (4): 43–52. doi: 10.1525/gfc.2002.2.4.43. JSTOR 10.1525/gfc.2002.2.4.43. a b Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet. National Academy Press. 1996. ISBN 978-0-309-05391-4. Important contributions have been made by scientists, chefs and authors such as Hervé This (chemist), Nicholas Kurti (physicist), Peter Barham (physicist), Harold McGee (author), Shirley Corriher (biochemist, author), Robert Wolke (chemist, author.) It is different for the application of scientific knowledge to cooking, that is "molecular cooking"( (for the technique) or "molecular cuisine" (for a culinary style), for which chefs such as Raymond Blanc, Philippe and Christian Conticini, Ferran Adria, Heston Blumenthal, Pierre Gagnaire (chef). [43]

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Phylogenetic analysis suggests that early hominids may have adopted cooking 1 million to 2 million years ago. [4] Re-analysis of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa has provided evidence supporting control of fire by early humans by 1 million years ago. [5] In his seminal work Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human, Richard Wrangham suggested that evolution of bipedalism and a large cranial capacity meant that early Homo habilis regularly cooked food. [6] [7] However, unequivocal evidence in the archaeological record for the controlled use of fire begins at 400,000 BCE, long after Homo erectus. [8] [9] [ clarification needed] Archaeological evidence from 300,000 years ago, [10] in the form of ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint, are found across Europe and the Middle East. The oldest evidence (via heated fish teeth from a deep cave) of controlled use of fire to cook food by archaic humans was dated to ~780,000 years ago. [11] [12] Anthropologists think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago when hearths first appeared. [13] Household air pollution and health". World Health Organization. 22 September 2021 . Retrieved 12 April 2022.